Philosophical Arguments About Human Existence

Introduction: Why do humans ask what it means to exist?

students, every human being asks big questions at some point: Who am I? Why am I here? What makes life meaningful? 🤔 These questions are not just personal feelings; they are philosophical questions about human existence. In IB Philosophy HL, the Core Theme — Being Human explores how philosophers understand human nature, identity, the mind and body, and what it means to live as a person.

In this lesson, you will learn how philosophers build arguments about human existence, what key terms they use, and how these ideas connect to real life. By the end, you should be able to explain major arguments, use examples correctly, and show how these arguments fit into the wider study of being human.

Learning objectives

• Explain the main ideas and terminology behind philosophical arguments about human existence.
• Apply philosophical reasoning to human existence questions.
• Connect these arguments to human nature, identity, and the self.
• Summarize how these arguments fit within the Core Theme — Being Human.
• Use evidence and examples to support philosophical claims.

What counts as a philosophical argument about human existence?

A philosophical argument is a set of reasons given to support a conclusion. In this topic, the conclusion is usually about what human beings are, what gives life meaning, or whether humans have special value. Philosophers do not just ask “What happens?” They ask “What does it mean?” and “Why should we believe that?”

One important idea is that human existence can be examined from different angles. Some philosophers focus on the body, some on the mind, some on social relationships, and some on freedom and choice. The same person can be described biologically, psychologically, morally, and socially. Each description may reveal something true, but no single view tells the whole story.

A useful IB skill is distinguishing between a claim and an argument. A claim is an assertion, such as “humans are rational beings.” An argument adds reasons, such as “humans use language, plan for the future, and justify actions; therefore, rationality is central to human identity.” This kind of reasoning matters because philosophy is not only about opinions — it is about justification.

Key terms

• Human nature: the characteristics that seem typical or essential to human beings.
• Identity: what makes a person the same person over time.
• Self: the sense of being a subject of experience, thought, and choice.
• Person: a being with moral and psychological status, often linked to consciousness or agency.
• Existence: the fact of being, living, or having reality.
• Meaning: significance or purpose in life.

Classical and religious views of human existence

Many philosophical arguments about human existence begin with the idea that humans are not just physical objects. In classical Greek philosophy, Plato argued that human beings are more than bodies because the soul is connected to reason and truth. In this view, the body can distract us, while the soul allows us to seek wisdom and goodness. Plato’s argument supports the idea that human beings have a spiritual or intellectual dimension beyond ordinary physical life.

Aristotle gave a different but still important account. He described humans as rational animals, meaning that humans share bodily life with other living things but are distinguished by reason and deliberation. This does not deny the body; instead, it suggests that the good human life involves using reason well. For Aristotle, flourishing means developing virtues such as courage, temperance, and justice.

Religious traditions also influence philosophical reflection on human existence. Many religious views hold that humans have a special dignity, purpose, or relationship to a creator. For example, if humans are believed to be created with moral responsibility, then existence is not random but meaningful. In philosophical discussion, such claims can be examined by asking what evidence supports them and whether they explain human experience better than purely material accounts.

A strong IB response should show that these views are not just historical facts. They are arguments with assumptions. Plato assumes that truth is higher than sensory appearance. Aristotle assumes that the human good is tied to function. Religious views often assume that purpose is given rather than invented. Recognizing assumptions helps you evaluate arguments fairly.

Mind, body, and the self: what kind of thing is a person?

One of the central philosophical arguments about human existence is the mind-body problem. This is the question of how the mind relates to the body. Are they separate substances, or is the mind just part of the physical brain?

René Descartes famously argued for dualism, the view that mind and body are distinct. His famous statement, $\textit{cogito, ergo sum}$, means “I think, therefore I am.” The idea is that even if everything else could be doubted, the act of thinking proves that the thinking self exists. For Descartes, the mind is more certain than the body because thoughts, doubts, and awareness are directly known.

A dualist argument says that because thoughts seem private and not directly measurable like objects in the world, the mind must be different from the body. However, critics point out that mental life is closely linked to the brain. Injury, illness, and drugs can change memory, personality, and perception. This supports physicalist views, which say that mental states depend on physical states.

Modern philosophy of mind often asks whether identity is tied to the brain, the body, memory, or consciousness. John Locke argued that personal identity is connected to memory and consciousness, not simply the same body. If you remember past actions as your own, then you are the same person in a moral sense. This is important because responsibility depends on identity. If a person cannot remember an action, should they be blamed for it? That question shows how philosophy connects abstract ideas to law and everyday life.

Example

Imagine a student who wakes up after a major accident with complete memory loss. Their body is the same, but their memories and personality have changed. Are they still the same person? A bodily view says yes because the same organism remains. A memory-based view says identity may be weakened because psychological continuity has changed. This example shows why arguments about human existence matter in real situations, such as medicine and ethics.

Existential arguments: freedom, anxiety, and meaning

Another major approach to human existence comes from existential philosophy. Existential thinkers focus on lived experience: being free, making choices, facing uncertainty, and searching for meaning.

Søren Kierkegaard emphasized the individual’s inner life and the challenge of making authentic choices. He argued that human existence involves anxiety because we are not programmed with a fully fixed path. We must choose, and choosing can be frightening. Existential anxiety is not just fear of danger; it is the awareness of freedom and responsibility.

Jean-Paul Sartre argued that humans are radically free and that “existence precedes essence.” This means people first exist and then define themselves through actions. There is no built-in human blueprint that fully determines who we are. According to Sartre, humans are responsible for creating values through choice. That freedom can be empowering, but it also creates burden because we cannot escape responsibility by blaming nature or destiny.

Existential arguments are powerful because they reflect ordinary experiences. A teenager choosing subjects, a worker changing careers, or a person deciding whether to help a friend all face questions of freedom and identity. These choices shape the self. Existentialism also explains why people can feel alienated, especially in modern societies where life may seem rushed, competitive, or impersonal.

At the same time, existential philosophy can be challenged. If social class, culture, family, and biology strongly influence choices, is human freedom really as unlimited as Sartre suggests? In IB evaluation, this is an important point: an argument may be insightful without being complete.

Human dignity, personhood, and ethical significance

Arguments about human existence often lead to the idea of dignity. Human dignity means that persons have value that should be respected. This concept appears in ethics, politics, and human rights.

One philosophical question is whether dignity belongs to all humans equally or only to certain persons with advanced abilities. Some philosophers connect personhood to rationality, self-awareness, or the ability to make moral choices. Others argue that all human beings deserve equal dignity simply because they are human. This matters in debates about disability, infancy, dementia, and end-of-life care.

For example, if personhood depends only on current rational ability, then a sleeping person or someone with severe cognitive impairment might seem to have less moral status. Many philosophers reject that conclusion because it can lead to unfair treatment. A broader view holds that human beings are worthy of respect because of what they are, not only what they can currently do.

This section connects directly to the Core Theme — Being Human because it shows that ideas about the self are not just theoretical. They affect how societies treat people. When philosophers argue about existence, they are also arguing about justice, responsibility, and human rights.

How to apply IB Philosophy reasoning

To answer questions on this topic well, students, you should do three things: explain, analyze, and evaluate.

• Explain the philosopher’s view clearly and accurately.
• Analyze the argument by identifying premises, assumptions, and conclusions.
• Evaluate the strength of the argument using examples, counterarguments, and comparisons.

A simple structure helps:

1. State the claim.
2. Present the supporting reasons.
3. Give an example.
4. Explain a challenge or limitation.
5. Conclude with a balanced judgment.

Mini example of reasoning

A philosopher might argue: humans are free because they can reflect on their choices. A counterargument is that choices are heavily shaped by culture and biology. A balanced conclusion is that humans may have limited but real freedom, not absolute freedom. This kind of response shows philosophical maturity because it avoids extremes.

Conclusion

Philosophical arguments about human existence ask what humans are, how the self should be understood, and whether life has purpose or value. Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Locke, Kierkegaard, and Sartre each offer different ways of understanding the human condition. Some emphasize reason, some the soul, some memory, and some freedom. Together, these ideas show that being human is complex and cannot be reduced to one simple explanation. In IB Philosophy HL, this topic matters because it connects abstract argument to real life, identity, and ethical responsibility. When you study these arguments, you are also studying what it means to be a person in the world 🌍

Study Notes

• Philosophical arguments about human existence use reasons to explain what humans are, what persons are, and what gives life meaning.
• Human nature can be described through reason, body, soul, freedom, relationship, and moral dignity.
• Plato emphasized the soul and the pursuit of truth.
• Aristotle described humans as rational animals who flourish through virtue.
• Descartes defended dualism and the certainty of the thinking self with $\textit{cogito, ergo sum}$.
• Locke linked personal identity to memory and consciousness.
• Existentialists such as Kierkegaard and Sartre focus on freedom, anxiety, and self-creation.
• Personhood and dignity raise ethical questions about rights, responsibility, and how people should be treated.
• IB answers should explain, analyze, and evaluate arguments clearly.
• Real-world examples help show why philosophical arguments about human existence matter in medicine, law, and everyday life.